Science and Culture
Nisbett argues that cultural assumptions influence scientists’ questions and interpretations. His historical examples challenge a picture of science as reasoning untouched by social context.
THE IDEA
Bertrand Russell once observed that scientists studying the problem-solving behavior of animals saw in their experimental subjects the national characteristics of the scientists themselves. The pragmatic Americans and the theoretically inclined Germans had very different understandings of what was happening.
Animals studied by Americans rush about frantically, with an incredible display of hustle and pep, and at last achieve the desired result by chance. Animals observed by Germans sit still and think, and at last evolve the solution out of their inner consciousness.
Ouch! Any psychologist knows there was more than a grain of truth in Russell's lampoon. Indeed, the groundwork for the cognitive revolution was laid by Western Europeans, especially Germans, who worked primarily on perception and thinking rather than learning. American soil was pretty barren for cognitive theory, and work on thought would undoubtedly have come along much later if not for prodding by Europeans. It's no accident that social psychology, which was founded by Europeans, was never "behaviorized" in the first place.
In addition to having to acknowledge the arational aspects of paradigm shifts, scientists have had to come to grips with the fact that cultural beliefs can profoundly influence scientific theories.
The Greeks believed in the stability of the universe, and scientists from Aristotle to Einstein were in thrall to this commitment. The Chinese, in contrast, were confident that the world was constantly changing. Chinese attention to context led to their correct understanding of acoustics, magnetism, and gravity.
Continental social scientists shake their heads in exasperation with what they call the rigid "methodological individualism" of American social scientists and their inability to see the relevance or even the existence of larger social structures and of the zeitgeist. The major advances in thinking about societies and organizations have primarily continental rather than Anglo-Saxon roots.
Western primatologists could see no social interaction among chimpanzees more complicated than the behavior that a pair of chimps exhibited toward each other until Japanese primatologists showed the very complicated nature of chimpanzee politics.
Even the preferred forms of reasoning differ across cultures. Logic is foundational for Western thought, dialecticism for East Asian thought. The two types of thinking can produce literally contradictory results.
The rapid and incompletely justified nature of shifts in scientific theories, together with recognition of the role of culture in affecting scientific views, contradicted the picture of science as an enterprise of pure rationality operating in the light of unshakable facts. These deviations may have contributed to a thoroughly antiscientific approach to reality that began to gain steam in the late twentieth century.
When to use it
When designing a study that involves participants from different cultures, consider how cultural norms might shape responses and observations.
When evaluating scientific claims, be aware that the researcher's cultural context may affect the interpretation of results.
In international collaborations, explicitly discuss methodological and philosophical differences to avoid misunderstandings.
When teaching science, highlight historical examples where cultural biases influenced theory development.
FROM THEORY TO EVERYDAY LIFE
In practice
American vs. German Animal Studies
Russell’s lampoon portrays American researchers seeing energetic trial and error in animals, while German researchers see reflective insight. Nisbett uses the joke to suggest that researchers can read their own assumptions into behavior; it is a caricature, not a controlled comparison of national traits.
Greek vs. Chinese Worldviews
The Greek belief in a stable universe influenced Western science from Aristotle to Einstein, whereas the Chinese emphasis on change led to correct insights in acoustics, magnetism, and gravity.
Methodological Individualism vs. Social Structures
Continental social scientists criticize American 'methodological individualism' for ignoring larger social structures and the zeitgeist, which they see as crucial for understanding societies.
Chimpanzee Politics
Western primatologists saw only simple social interactions among chimpanzees, but Japanese primatologists revealed complex political behaviors.
A MOMENT TO REFLECT
Put it to work.
How might your own cultural background influence the way you interpret scientific data or choose research questions?
Can you think of a time when a cultural assumption led you to overlook an alternative explanation in a problem-solving situation?
In what ways could cross-cultural collaboration in science help counteract the biases described here?
Often confused with
CONTINUE THE CONVERSATION
Source texts
- Mindware Tools for Smart Thinking (Richard E. Nisbett)